Perhaps the biggest struggle in Iranian Fashion history has been the struggle between the old and the new. Iranians have notoriously been fashion innovators trying to balance expectations of the different tastes in this vast country. Classic Qajar dress code was the last time Iranians witnessed traditional clothes, which included some form of veil, or hejab, for the woman. In the countryside, women have always worn head scarves, which are usually lively and colorful to protect hair from dust. Scarves and wraps are worn often and gathered at the waists to free up the arms. The black chador, seen on the streets even today, probably made its entry in the late 18th century as a way for women to appear in public. In early Persian, women were not allowed to appear in public without some form of veiling. Eventually, traditional Persian and local village clothes were traded in for the more fancy and respected Western outfits in the early 19th century.

As more Iranians travelled to Europe, and the Far East, more fashions and materials were brought to the cities which allowed for more contemporary and modern designs. Reza Shah Pahlavi was the first shah to challenge the chador. In 1935, while he aggressively moved to modernize the country in economic, structural, and political ways, the shah of Iran issued a decree banning the chador. He made the act an offense punishable by prison. He also banned the wearing of turbans and beards by men. To reinforce this, he invited the Queen Mother and royal princesses, unveiled, to a graduation ceremony at the Women's Teacher Training College in Tehran in 1936. The shah told his audience that all Iranian women should follow their example and "cast their veils, this symbol of injustice and shame, into the fires of oblivion." Over the years, veils, beards, and turbans have become political tools to show allegiance for or against forms of government. Duing the entire Pahlavi era in Iran, the more educated or more modern Iranians wore Western clothes such as mini skirts, bellbottoms, colorful and more revealing clothes. Approximately 60 years after Reza Shah's decree, another mandate was passed requiring the hejab, with the arrival of the Islamic revolution. Ayatollah Khomeini labeled the chador, as "the flag of the revolution." Since the revolution, the many roosari-wearing (headscarf) fashionistas have found ways to satisfy their thirst for haute couture by wearing heavier make-up and the latest trends under their Islamic dress

TRADITIONAL Iranian Dress

Iran is a vast country containing many different ethnicities and languages. As a result, the traditional dress tends to vary by region, territory and sometimes even individual village. By in large, the majority of the ethnicities pertaining to the regions of Iran, dictate the traditional costumes. These include dress styles for Bakhtiaris, Baluchis, Loris, Gilanis, Kurds, Ghoochanis, Ghashghahis, and others. Some dresses come also from the different historical times, such as the Qajar dynasty. We have reviewed a few of the traditional Iranian dresses here

The traditional Bakhtiari dress for women (right) consists of a long colorful skirt with many layers, and an additional apron-like material, which is thinner and brighter. Bakhtiari women wear long scarves and wraps which can contain ornaments and decorations sewn in from faux coins to hand-sewn designs. Separate shirts are worn at the top with matching vests or shawls. Bakhtiari clothes are versatile and protect the people from weather and extreme conditions. Another form of the Bakhtiari dress is shown here on the left on this 1974, two rial stamp. The stamp collection was issued to commemorate traditional Iranian clothes

Following in similar suit, the Baluchi dress (right) also uses bright and colorful materials. The emphasis in this style is more on the overall garment which is similar to a loose fitting dress. Underneath the dress, which falls only below the knee, women tend to wear trousers. The trousers are generally straight and long and made from cotton or easy-fitting materials. As this is traditional Baluchi outfit is worn in the villages where manul labor is common, it is important that the dress is highly mobile and comfortable. A small headcovering may be worn with gold or silver ornaments landing gently on the forehead. The head dress is also accompanied by a larger shawl

The Baluchi men also wear long tunics with matching color pants. Sometimes hats are worn to protect against bad weather. A sample Baluchi outfit with the traditional Baluchi hat is shown on the left. The two Baluchi musicians are wearing traditional white Baluchi outfits

Another form of traditional dress stems from the Ghashghahi or Ghashghai region. Women from this region wear, located in the south of Iran, wear long skirts which are slightly more layered and offer much brighter colors. This can be seen on the right. The shirts are usually lighter in color and are sometimes entirely covered by the scarves worn on the head. The Ghashghai head cover tends to be tightly closed at the bottom of the chin with some sort of pin, for example a safety pin. A second headband-like cloth may be wrapped around the head of the individual. This cloth may be longer and hang from the person's head back over the shoulder. Smaller ornaments such as coins may be hung from the forehead, depending on the occasion. For men, the Ghashghahi hat is a common item. The Ghashghahi hat is famous and has a very recognizable round shape, usually made from sheep's hair. They tend to be be light brown and very soft to the touch. Another version of the Ghashgahi dress is depicted in this 1974 stamp on the left

Another form of dress, known as the Ghoochani comes from the region of Ghoochan. This region is also spelled Quochan and lies about 150 kilometers from the city of Mashhad. In the year 1791 AD, Nader Shah was killed in " Tapeh Nader" (Nader's hill) close to the main city. With hot summers and cold winters, the clothing in this area has to be multi-functional and versatile. The traditional Ghoochani dress looks as depicted in the photo on the left. Women's skirts tend to be shorter and the shoes tend to be made for long walks, and climbs. Vests and head covers are also common and lots of bright colors and lines are used in the patterns of the garments throughout

In contrast to the shorter skirts of the Ghoochani's, the traditional Gilani dresses tend to be floor-length. The Gilan province, with a population of nearly 2 million extends from the Caucasus in the northwest of Iran to the western edge of Mazandaran. It is bordered on the west by Ardebil province and the Zanjan province in the south. The capital of Gilan capital is the city of Rasht. This region tends to experience more humid and hot temperature given the mountains surrounding the area. A very distinct trend in the Gilani skirts are the traditional black and white stripes across the bottom of the skirt. Lighter solid shirt and vest are also worn and the head scarves tend to be airy and accompanied by fringes. Men's traditional outfits consist of loose trousers and shirts tied at the waist with a wide cotton belt. Cylindar-like hats may be worn with the outfit as shown in this 1977 photo from a stamp collection depicting the traditional Gilani outfits

The next traditional dress comes from the city of Kashan. Kashan is located at southeast of the holy city of Qom. It borders on the dry land of Dasht-e Kavir and usually has hot, dry weather. For agricultural needs and most of other water consumption, Kashan uses the age-old Qanat system. There are 60 underground water canals, also known as Kariz, still in operation. Clothes from Kashan tend to be light and airy. The Kashani dress for women features a long solid skirt, accompanied by a long shirt, with ornaments and hand-sewn designs. In addition, long-sleeved vests with large openings are common. The scarves tend to be shorter as shown in the picture on the right. Overall, the dress is simpler and more solid in nature than other regions of the country

The dress of the people of Khorasan (Kohrassan) is traditionally more protective. The region is situated in the East of Iran, and historically included the regions of Transoxiana and Afghanistan. It was in the 19th century, during the Qajar Dynasty, that the new frontiers were established. Both the men and women of Khorasan tend to wear trousers that are extra baggy and large. The traditional fashion calls for more solid colors. A large solid shirt with a round collar is a typical look for the male. For women, dresses are worn on top of the trousers that reach below the knee. A head dress is worn. This would be a scarf for a woman and usually a turban for the man. In addition, large shawls are draped over the head or body depending on climate and weather as shown in the image on the left

By far the most elaborate and diverse form of traditional dress comes from the many Kurds who inhabit several regions of Iran. Since the Kurds live in different regions, their clothes also tend to vary. There are the Kurds from Sanandaj, depicted in the picture on the far right. There are also the kurds from Kermanshah. A sample outfit is shown on the near right photo. Kuridsh outfits tend to have headcoverings which are larger and more elaborate than other costumes. Both men and women commonly have belts which are very wide and tightly wrapped around the waist over the clothes to give the outfit some shape. Shirts, skirts, and trousers for both men and women tend to be very baggy and over-sized. Kurdish women tend to wear many coins and jewels which dangle on their forehead and are attached to a scarf or shawl

The dress of the people from Lorestan is very distinct and ornamental. The Lori dress tends to have hand-sewn designs such as paisley and flowers on the sleeve ends and rims of jackets and trousers. The head gear for the Lori people is a rounded look and is achieved by wrapping a large scarf not just on the head but all around the shoulders and neck as well. There is then also an additional cloth that hangs down from the top of the head. In this sample outfit we see the distinct decorations on the edges of the clothes, including the traditional long vest, worn over the dress and trousers. The vest has shorter sleeves, allowing for the dress sleeves to come through. The trousers also have the trade mark stripe designs at the hem. Women's outfits usually use brighter, more feminine colors such as light green, blue, pink and red with flower or rainbow-like patterns. The men's clothes tend to use solid browns, and grays using very little pattern. The overcoats and vests are long and baggy. Hats may be worn as shown in the picture below which is taken from a 1981 stamp commemorating the traditional Iranian fashions

One of the most interesting traditional dresses is the Mazandarani dress. The Mazandaran region lies to the north of Iran, in the area of the Caspian Sea, north of Tehran. The region is filled with farmlands and engages in agriculture. The costume of Mazandaran consists of trousers and dress, like most regional dress. The distinguishing feature in the Mazandarani dress, for women, is the skirt. It is usually much shorter and much fuller than the usual traditional outfits. Depending on the occasion and the time of year, the skirts can get quite short, and be likened to puffy mini-skirts. For men, generally a cotton shirt that is simpe can be worn with trousers that are similar to hunting trousers. Shoes, socks or boots are often worn high below the knee. Nomadic hats, made from sheep's hair or the like is also very common among the Mazandarani village fashions. Different sample styles, including the 1978 honorary stamps are shown here to depict sample Mazandarani dress

The Torkaman tribe in Iran, mainly coming from Turkey and having settled in Iran, also have a distinct and special dress. The Torkaman dress in Iran for the women consists of a long dress with a long open robe. Probably the most conceiling of fashions, the Torkaman dress generally sports a face-cover. This can be in the form of a cloth that the woman ties behind the ears and hangs just under the nose. Clothes tend to favor rusty, and earthy colors, such as deep reds and dark browns. The men's outfits also consist of solid-colored tunics and trousers. The distinguishing features are the hats as depicted in this Torkaman concert photo on the right. Helmets like there were worn in battle and warm hats were worn to protect against the cold, harsh winters. Another Iranian stamp from 1974 below shows a traditional torkaman outfit

Modern Iranian dress

The Iranian culture is one that draws upon old and new elements of style in sometimes a paradoxical way. Modern Iranian men and women all over the world dress mostly in Western clothes. Iranians who live outside of Iran tend to blend into the crowds, wearing local fashions. Iranians as a whole can be considered very brand-conscious and fashion aware. It is true therefore that Iranians who live in LA may dress differently that those living in Paris. The older generation of women also tends to be almost painfully fashion conscious, wearing make-up and chanel at every occasion. The new generation of Iranians that has grown up outside of Iran is much more subtle and follows the trends in their respective environments. Due to the pressures of the Islamic dress code, women in Iran tend to overdress underneath their "manteaus" (overcoats). In general, you will also notice much more make-up on the women as a way of self-expression and rebellion

Islamic Dress Code in Iran

Currently in Iran, the Islamic dress code is still observed all over the country. The code calls for women to cover their hair, necks and arms. Modern women in Iran today, wear a "manteau" or overcoat, similar to a uniform (left). The overcoats have long sleeves and usually come below the knee. The length of the overcoat does change with the times. For a while, really long ones were in and a few years ago, women tried to get away with very short coats, as well. To cover the hair a scarf or shawl is accepted. This can be worn by folding the two opposite corners of a scarf to get a triangle and tying the scarf around your head. Trousers or dark stockings are worn under the overcoat.

For men, short sleeves and "Western" clothing can be a cause for concern. Generally, shorts, T-shirts and ties are not worn in public environments. You will find many Iranians who dress very Western for private functions and events. Therefore the fashions really depend upon the destination and purpose of your trip. When dealing with government agencies, schools, embassies, and the like, obeying the rules is highly recommended

All informations are from persianmirror.com

MOHSEN DAVOUDI                          khorbeh.blogfa.com

Achaemenid Empire

The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 BCE) was amongst the first Persian Empires that ruled over significant portions of Greater Iran, followed the Iranian Median Empire. At the height of its power, the Iranian Achaemenid Empire encompassed approximately 6.5 million square kilometers and became the Largest Empire of Ancient World

The empire was forged by Cyrus the Great, and spanned three continents, including territories of Afghanistan and Pakistan, parts of Central Asia, Asia Minor, Thrace, much of the Black Sea coastal regions, Iraq, northern Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, and all significant population centers of ancient Egypt as far west as Libya. It is noted in western history as the foe of the Greek city states in the Greco-Persian Wars, for freeing the Israelites from their Babylonian captivity, and for instituting Aramaic as the empire's official language. It fell during the Wars of Alexander the Great in 330 BC. Because of the Empire's vast extent and long endurance, Persian influence upon the language, religion, architecture, philosophy, law and government of nations around the world lasts to this day

HISTORY

The empire began as a tributary state of the Medes but ended up conquering and enlarging the Median empire to include Egypt and Asia Minor. Under Xerxes, it came very close to conquering Ancient Greece. The Achaemenids were overthrown by the conquest of Alexander the Great in 330 BCE

The early period

The founder of this dynasty was supposedly Achaemenes: هخامنش (Old Persian Haxāmaniš "Of Friendly Mind"). He was succeeded by his son Teispes (Cišpi), who first took the title King of Anšān after seizing Anšān city from the Elamites. Inscriptions indicate that when Teispes died, two of his sons shared the throne as Cyrus (Kuruš), king of Anšān, and Ariaramnes (Ariyāramna, 'Having the Iranians at Peace'), king of Parsua (later called Pārsa, that is, Persia Proper). They were succeeded by their respective sons Cambyses I of Anshan (Kambūjiya, "the Elder"), and  (Aršāma "Having a Hero's Might") of Iran (Persia)

In 559 BCE, Cambyses I the Elder was succeeded as king of Anšān by his son Cyrus II the Great, who also succeeded the still-living Arsames as King of Persia, thus reuniting the two realms. Cyrus is considered to be the first true king of the Achaemenid dynasty, as his predecessors were subservient to Media. Cyrus II conquered Media, Lydia, and Babylon. Cyrus was politically shrewd, modeling himself as the "savior" of conquered nations. To reinforce this image, he instituted policies of religious freedom, and restored temples and other infrastrcture in the newly acquired cities. (Most notably the Jews of Babylon, as recorded in the Cyrus Cylinder and the Tanakh). It was the general policy of the Achaemenids to continue the Assyrian and Babylonian practice of transferring large populations between areas. This caused a great deal of cultural diffusion, blending many of the disparate clans together, and thus reducing previous tribal (and territorial) loyalties. As a result, the Achaemenid era was known as a relatively peaceful period in Middle Eastern history

His immediate successors were less successful. Cyrus' son Cambyses II conquered Egypt, but died in July 522 BCE as the result of either accident or suicide, during a revolt led by a sacerdotal clan that had lost its power following Cyrus' conquest of Media. These priests, whom Herodotus called Magi, usurped the throne for one of their own, Gaumata, who then pretended to be Cambyses II's younger brother Smerdis (Pers. Bardiya), who had been assassinated some three years earlier. Owing to the despotic rule of Cambyses and his long absence in Egypt, "the whole people, Perses, Medes and all the other nations," acknowledged the usurper, especially as he granted a remission of taxes for three years

It is important to note that the claim that Gaumata had impersonated Smerdis, is derived from Darius. Historians are divided over the possibility that the story of the impostor was invented by Darius as justification for his coup. Dr. Ranajit Pal holds that Gaumata was the same as Gotama Buddha. In his view, Davadatta, the adversary of Gotama was Zoroaster. Darius made a similar claim when he later captured Babylon, announcing that the Babylonian king was not, in fact, Nebuchadnezzar III, but an impostor named Nidintu-bel

According to the Behistun Inscription, pseudo-Smerdis ruled for seven months before being overthrown in 522 BCE by a member of a lateral branch of the Achaemenid family, Darius I (Old Persian Dāryavuš "Who Holds Firm the Good", also known as Darayarahush or Darius the Great). The Magi, though persecuted, continued to exist, and a year following the death of the first pseudo-Smerdis (Gaumata), had a second pseudo-Smerdis (named Vahyazdāta) attempt a coup. The coup, though initially successful, failed

According to Herodotus, the native leadership then debated the best form of government for the Empire. He reports that it was decided that oligarchy would divide them against one another, and democracy would bring about mob rule resulting in a charismatic leader resuming the monarchy. Therefore, they decided a new monarch was in order, particularly since they were in a position to choose him. Darius I was chosen monarch from among the leaders. He was cousin to Cambyses II and Smerdis, claiming Ariaramnes as his ancestor

The Achaemenids thereafter consolidated areas firmly under their control. It was Cyrus the Great and Darius the Great who, by sound and farsighted administrative planning, brilliant military maneuvering, and a humanistic world view, established the greatness of the Achaemenids and, in less than thirty years, raised them from an obscure tribe to a world power. It was during the reign of Darius I that Persepolis was built (518–516 BCE) and which would serve as capital for several generations of Achaemenid kings. Ecbatana (Hagmatāna "City of Gatherings", modern Hamadan) in Media was greatly expanded during this period and served as the summer capital

Darius I attacked the Greek mainland, which had supported rebellious Greek colonies under his aegis; but as a result of his defeat at the Battle of Marathon in 490, he was forced to pull the limits of his empire back to Asia Minor

Greco-Persian Wars

Nonetheless, by the 5th century BCE the Achaemenid kings ruled over territories roughly encompassing today's Iran, Iraq, Armenia, Afghanistan, Turkey, Bulgaria, many parts of Greece, Egypt, Syria, Pakistan, Jordan, Israel, the West Bank, Lebanon, Caucasia, parts of Central Asia, Libya, and northern parts of Arabia. The empire eventually became the largest empire of the ancient world

Xerxes I (485–465 BCE, Old Persian Xšayārša "Hero Among Kings"), son of Darius I, organised a massive expedition aiming to conquer Greece. His army entered Greece from the north, meeting little or no resistance through Macedonia and Thessaly, but was held by a small Greek force for three days at Thermopylae. A simultaneous naval battle at Artemisium was tactically indecisive as large storms destroyed ships from both sides. The battle was stopped prematurely when the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. The battle was a strategic victory for the Persians, giving them uncontested control of Artemisium and Aegean Sea

Following his victory at the Battle of Thermopylae, Xerxes sacked the evacuated city of Athens and prepared to meet the Greeks at the strategic Isthmus of Corinth and the Saronic Gulf. In 480 BCE the Greeks won a decisive victory at the Battle of Salamis and forced Xerxes to retire to Sardis. The army which he left in Greece under Mardonius was destroyed in 479 BCE at the Battle of Plataea. The final defeat of the Persians at Mycale encouraged the Greek cities of Asia to revolt, and marked the end of the Greco-Persian Wars, along with Persian expansion to Europe

The cultural phase

Xerxes I was followed by Artaxerxes I (465–424 BCE), who moved the capital from Persepolis to Babylon. It was during this reign that Elamite ceased to be the language of government, and Aramaic came into prominence. It was probably during this reign that the solar calendar (based on the Babylonian one) was introduced as the national calendar. Under Artaxerxes I, Zoroastrianism became the de-facto religion of state, and for this Artaxerxes I is today also known as the Constantine of that faith

Artaxerxes I died in Susa, and his body was brought to Persepolis for interment in the tomb of his forebears. Artaxerxes I was immediately succeeded by his eldest son Xerxes II, who was however assassinated by one of his half-brothers a few weeks later. Darius II was then in Babylon, where he rallied support for himself. He marched eastwards, desposed and put to death the assassin and was crowned in his stead

From 412 Darius II (423–404 BCE), at the insistence of the able Tissaphernes, gave support then to Athens, then to Sparta, but in 407, Darius' son Cyrus the Younger was appointed to replace Tissaphernes and aid was given entirely to Sparta which finally defeated Athens in 404. In the same year, Darius fell fatally ill and died in Babylon. At his deathbed, his Babylonian wife Parysatis pleaded with Darius to have her second eldest son Cyrus (the Younger) crowned, but Darius refused

Darius was then succeeded by his eldest son Artaxerxes II Memnon. Plutarch relates (probably on the authority of Ctesias) that the displaced Tissaphernes came to the new king on his coronation day to warn him that his younger brother Cyrus (the Younger) was preparing to assassinate him during the ceremony. Artaxerxes had Cyrus arrested and would have had him put to death if their mother Parysatis had not intervened. Cyrus was then sent back as Satrap of Lydia, where he prepared an armed rebellion. Cyrus and Artaxerxes met in the Battle of Cunaxa in 401 BCE, where Cyrus was killed

Artaxerxes II (404–358 BCE), was the longest reigning of the Achaemenid kings and it was during this 45-year period of (relative) peace and stability that many of the monuments of the era were constructed. Artaxerxes moved the capital back to Persepolis, which he greatly extended. Also the summer capital at Ecbatana was lavishly extended with gilded columns and roof tiles of silver and copper (Polybius, 10.27.12). The extraordinary innovation of the Zoroastrian shrine cults can also be dated to his reign, and it was probably during this period that Zoroastrianism was disseminated throughout Asia Minor and the Levant, and from there to Armenia. The temples, though serving a religious purpose, were however not a purely selfless act: they also served as an important source of income. From the Babylonian kings, the Achaemenids had taken over the concept of a mandatory temple tax, a one-tenth tithe which all inhabitants paid to the temple nearest to their land or other source of income (Dandamaev & Lukonin, 1989:361–362). A share of this income called the quppu ša šarri, "kings chest"—an ingenious institution originally introduced by Nabonidus—was then turned over to the ruler. In retrospect, Artaxerxes is generally regarded as an amiable man who lacked the moral fibre to be a really successful ruler. However, six centuries later Ardeshir I, founder of the second Persian Empire, would consider himself Artaxerxes' successor, a grand testimony of the importance of Artaxerxes to the Persian psyche

Fall of the empire begins

According to Greek sources, Artaxerxes' successor Artaxerxes III (358 BC–338 BCE) came to the throne by bloody means, ensuring his place upon the throne by the assassination of eight of his half-brothers. In 343 BCE Artaxerxes III defeated Nectanebo II, driving him from Egypt, and made Egypt once again a Persian satrapy. In 338 BCE, the very year that Philip of Macedon united the Greek states (by force) and so paved the way for Alexander, Artaxerxes III died of natural causes (according to cuneiform sources) but according to the Greek historian Diodorus, Artaxerxes was murdered by his minister, Bagoas

Artaxerxes III was succeeded by Artaxerxes IV Arses, who before he could act was also poisoned by Bagoas. Bagoas is further said to have killed not only all Arses' children, but many of the other princes of the land. Bagoas then had Darius III (336–330 BCE), a nephew of Artaxerxes IV, placed on the throne

Darius III, although previously Satrap of Armenia, had no training in governing the empire, but in his first year as emperor he personally forced Bagoas to swallow poison. In 334 BCE, when Darius was just succeeding in subduing Egypt again, Alexander and his battle-hardened Macedonian troops attacked Asia Minor, which began the Wars of Alexander the Great

Second reign over Egypt falls

At two different times, the Achaemenids ruled Egypt although the Egyptians twice regained temporary independence from Persia. After the practice of Manetho, Egyptian historians refer to the periods in Egypt when the Achaemenid dynasty ruled as the twenty-seventh dynasty of Egypt, 525–404 BCE, until the death of Darius II, and the thirty-first dynasty of Egypt, 343–332 BCE, which began after Nectanebo II was defeated by the Persian king Artaxerxes III

This second Persian occupation of Egypt ended in 332 when Alexander the Great entered Egypt where he was welcomed as a liberator in Persian-occupied Egypt. Alexander defeated western Satraps at the battles of Issus (332 BCE), and the Gaugamela (331BCE)

Next, Alexander marched on Susa, which likewise, capitulated and surrendered vast treasure. Alexander then went eastward to Persepolis which surrendered in early 330 BCE. From Persepolis, Alexander headed north to Pasargadae where he treated the tomb of Cyrus II with respect. From there he headed to Ecbatana, where Darius III had sought refuge

The Persian king was taken prisoner by Bessus, his Bactrian satrap and kinsman. As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men murder Darius and then declared himself Darius' successor, as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander. They left the body of Darius in the road to delay Alexander, who took his body to Persepolis for an honorable interment

The Achaemenid empire was succeeded by the Seleucid empire, that is, by the generals of Alexander and their descendants, who ruled Persia. They in turn would be succeeded by the Arsacid dynasty of Parthia in North-Eastern Iran, who, quite spuriously, would claim Artaxerxes II for their ancestor

Istakhr, one of the vassal kingdoms of the Arsacids would be overthrown by Papak, a priest of the temple there. Papak's son, Ardašir I, who named himself in remembrance of Artaxerxes II, revolted against the Parthians, defeated them and went on to establish the second Persian Empire, 556 years after the end of the first

Government

The Achaemenids were absolutists who allowed a certain amount of regional autonomy in the form of the satrapy system. A satrapy was an administrative unit, usually organized on a geographical basis. A satrap (governor) administered the region, a general supervised military recruitment and ensured order, and a state secretary kept official records. The general and the state secretary reported directly to the central government

Accomplishments of Darius' reign included codification of the data, a universal legal system upon which much of later Iranian law would be based, and construction of a new capital at Persepolis, where vassal states would offer their yearly tribute at the festival celebrating the spring equinox

The practice of slavery in Achaemenid Persia was generally banned, although there is evidence that conquered and/or rebellious armies were sold into captivity.Zoroastrianism, the de facto religion of the empire, explicitly forbids slavery, and the kings of Achaemenid Persia followed this ban to varying degrees, as evidenced by the freeing of the Jews at Babylon, and the construction of Persepolis by paid workers

The twenty three satrapies were linked by a 2,500-kilometer highway, the most impressive stretch being the Royal Road from Susa to Sardis, built by command of Darius I. Relays of mounted couriers could reach the remotest of areas in fifteen days. Despite the relative local independence afforded by the satrapy system, royal inspectors, the "eyes and ears of the king," toured the empire and reported on local conditions. The king also maintained a personal bodyguard of 10,000 men, called the Immortals

Darius revolutionized the economy by placing it on a silver and gold coinage system. Trade was extensive, and under the Achaemenids there was an efficient infrastructure that facilitated the exchange of commodities in the far reaches of the empire. Tariffs on trade were one of the empire's main sources of revenue, along with agriculture and tribute

Culture

The Achaemenid Empire, which at the height of its power had more than 20 nations under its control, was built on the most basic principles - that of truth and justice, which formed the bases of the Achaemenid culture. Based on the Zoroastrian doctrine, it was the strong emphasis on honesty and integrity that gave the ancient Persians credibility to rule the world, even in the eyes of the people belonging to the conquered nations (except for the frequent rebellions i.e. the Ionian rebellion and the fierce resistance put up to it from all of the sovereign nations they invaded such as the Scythians, Egyptians, Ionians). Herodotus in his mid-5th century BCE account of Persian residents of the Pontus recorded that the most disgraceful thing in the world [the Perses] think, is to tell a lie; the next worst, to owe a debt: because, among other reasons, the debtor is obliged to tell lies. Herodotus also reports that Persian youths, from their fifth year to their twentieth year, were instructed in three things - to ride a horse, to draw a bow, and to speak the Truth. Truth for the sake of truth, was the universal motto and the very core of the Achaemenid culture that was followed not only by the great kings, but even the ordinary Persians, who made it a point to adhere to this code of conduct

In Achaemenid Iran, the lie, druj, is considered to be a cardinal sin, and it was punishable by death in some extreme cases. Tablets discovered by archaeologists in 1930s at the site of Persepolis give us adequate evidence about the love and veneration for the culture of truth during the Achaemenian period. These tablets contain the names of ordinary Iranians, mainly traders and warehouse-keepers. According to Professor Stanley Insler of Yale University, as many as 72 names of officials and petty clerks found on these tablets contain the word truth. Thus, says Insler, we have Artapana, protector of truth, Artakama, lover of truth, Artamanah, truth-minded, Artafarnah, possessing splendour of truth, Artazusta, delighting in truth, Artastuna, pillar of truth, Artafrida, prospering the truth and Artahunara, having nobility of truth. It was Darius the Great, who laid down the ordinance of good regulations during his reign. King Darius' testimony about his constant battle against the lie is found in cuneiform inscriptions. Carved high up in the Behistun mountain on the road to Kermanshah, Darius testifies:

I was not a lie-follower, I was not a doer of wrong ... According to righteousness I conducted myself. Neither to the weak or to the powerful did I do wrong. The man who cooperated with my house, him I rewarded well; who so did injury, him I punished well

Darius had his hands full dealing with large-scale rebellion which broke out throughout the empire. After fighting successfully with nine traitors in a year, Darius records his battles against them for posterity and tells us how it was the lie that made them rebel against the empire. At Behistun, Darius says:

I smote them and took prisoner nine kings. One was Gaumata by name, a Magian; he lied; thus he said: I am Smerdis, the son of Cyrus...One, Acina by name, an Elamite; he lied; thus he said: I am king in Elam... One, Nidintu-Bel by name, a Babylonian; he lied; thus he said: I am Nebuchadnezzar, the son of Nabonidus. King Darius then tells us, The Lie made them rebellious, so that these men deceived the people

Then an advice to his son Xerxes, who is to succeed him as the great king:

Thou who shalt be king hereafter, protect yourself vigorously from the Lie; the man who shall be a lie-follower, him do thou punish well, if thus thou shall think. May my country be secure!

Language

During the reign of Cyrus and Darius, and as long as the seat of government was still at Susa in Elam, the language of the Achaemenid chancellory was Elamite. This is primarily attested in the Persepolis fortification and treasury tablets that reveal details of the day-to-day functioning of the empire. In the grand rock-face inscriptions of the kings, the Elamite texts are always accompanied by Akkadian and Old Persian inscriptions, and it appears that in these cases, the Elamite texts are translations of the Old Persian ones. It is then likely that although Elamite was used by the capital government in Susa, it was not a standardized language of government everywhere in the empire. The use of Elamite is not attested after 458 BC

Following the conquest of Mesopotamia, the Aramaic language (as used in that territory) was adopted as the "vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a single official language, which modern scholarship has dubbed Official Aramaic or Imperial Aramaic, can be assumed to have greatly contributed to the astonishing success of the Achaemenids in holding their far-flung empire together for as long as they did. "In 1955, Richard Frye questioned the classification of Imperial Aramaic as an "official language", noting that no surviving edict expressly and unambiguously accorded that status to any particular language. Frye reclassifies Imperial Aramaic as the "lingua franca" of the Achaemenid territories, suggesting then that the Achaemenid-era use of Aramaic was more pervasive than generally thought. Many centuries after the fall of the empire, Aramaic script and - as ideograms - Aramaic vocabulary would survive as the essential characteristics of the Pahlavi writing system

Although Old Persian also appears on some seals and art objects, that language is attested primarily in the Achaemenid inscriptions of Western Iran, suggesting then that Old Persian was the common language of that region. However, by the reign of Artaxerxes II, the grammar and orthography of the inscriptions was so "far from perfect" that it has been suggested that the scribes who composed those texts had already largely forgotten the language, and had to rely on older inscriptions, which they to a great extent reproduced verbatim

Customs

Herodotus mentions that the Persians were given to great birthday feasts, which would be followed by many desserts, a treat which they reproached the Greeks for omitting from their meals. Likewise, he observed that the Persians drank wine in large quantities and used it even for counsel, deliberating on important affairs when drunk, and deciding the next day, when sober, whether to act on the decision or set it aside

On their methods of greeting, he asserts that equals kissed on the lips, persons of some difference in rank kissed on the cheek, and the lowest ranks would prostrate on the ground to the upper ranks. It is known that men of high rank practiced polygamy, and were reputed to have a number of wives and a greater number of concubines. On their same-sex relations, high ranked men kept favorites, such as Bagoas who was one of Darius III's favorites and who later became Alexander's eromenos. Persian pederasty and its origins were debated even in ancient times. Herodotus claimed they had learned it from the Greeks, however, Plutarch asserts that the Persians used eunuch boys to that end long before contact between the cultures

Also from Herodotus we learn that the Persians had a very high regard for truth, teaching the respect of truth to their children and despising nothing so much as a lie. On the education of the children, we learn that from the age of five until twenty they were taught to ride, shoot the bow, and speak the truth. Until the age of five children spent all their time among the women and never met the father, so that, should they die in infancy, he would not sorrow over their loss. (Herodotus, The History, passim)

Religion

It was during the Achaemenid period that Zoroastrianism reached South-Western Iran, where it came to be accepted by the rulers and through them became a defining element of Persian culture. The religion was not only accompanied by a formalization of the concepts and divinities of the traditional (Indo-)Iranian pantheon but also introduced several novel ideas, including that of free will

Under the patronage of the Achaemenid kings, and by the fifth century BCE as the de-facto religion of the state, Zoroastrianism would reach all corners of the empire

For in the mid-fifth century BCE, that is, during the reign of Artaxerxes I and Darius II, Herodotus wrote "[the Perses] have no images of the gods, no temples nor altars, and consider the use of them a sign of folly. This comes, I think, from their not believing the gods to have the same nature with men, as the Greeks imagine." He claims the Persians offer sacrifice to: "the sun and moon, to the earth, to fire, to water, and to the winds. These are the only gods whose worship has come down to them from ancient times. At a later period they began the worship of Urania, which they borrowed from the Arabians and Assyrians. Mylitta is the name by which the Assyrians know this goddess, whom the Arabians call Alitta, and the Persians Anahita." (The original name here is Miθra, which has since been explained to be a confusion of Anahita with Mithra, understandable since they were commonly worshipped together in one temple)

From the Babylonian scholar-priest Berosus, who—although writing over seventy years after the reign of Artaxerxes II Mnemon—records that the emperor had been the first to make cult statues of divinities and have them placed in temples in many of the major cities of the empire (Berosus, III.65). Berosus also substantiates Herodotus when he says the Persians knew of no images of gods until Artaxerxes II erected those images. On the means of sacrifice, Herodotus adds "they raise no altar, light no fire, pour no libations." This sentence has been interpreted to identify a critical (but later) accretion to Zoroastrianism. An altar with a wood-burning fire and the Yasna service at which libations are poured are all clearly identifiable with modern Zoroastrianism, but apparently, were practices that had not yet developed in the mid-fifth century. Boyce also assigns that development to the reign of Artaxerxes II (fourth century BCE), as an orthodox response to the innovation of the shrine cults

Herodotus also observed that "no prayer or offering can be made without a magus present" but this should not be confused with what is today understood by the term magus, that is a magupat (modern Persian: mobed), a Zoroastrian priest. Nor does Herodotus' description of the term as one of the tribes or castes of the Medes necessarily imply that these magi were Medians. They simply were a hereditary priesthood to be found all over Western Iran and although (originally) not associated with any one specific religion, they were traditionally responsible for all ritual and religious services. Although the unequivocal identification of the magus with Zoroastrianism came later (Sassanid era, third–seventh c. AD), it is from Herodotus' magus of the mid-fifth century that Zoroastrianism was subject to doctrinal modifications that are today considered to be revocations of the original teachings of the prophet. Also, many of the ritual practices described in the Avesta's Vendidad (such as exposure of the dead) were already practiced by the magu of Herodotus ' time

Art and architecture

Achaemenid art, like Achaemenid religion, was a blend of many elements. Just as the Achaemenids were tolerant in matters of local government and custom, as long as Persians controlled the general policy and administration of the empire, so also were they tolerant in art so long as the finished and total effect was Persian. At Pasargadae (Pāsargad), the capital of Cyrus II and Cambyses II, and at Persepolis, the neighboring city founded by Darius the Great and used by all of his successors, one can trace to a foreign origin almost all of the several details in the construction and embellishment of the architecture and the sculptured reliefs; but the conception, planning, and overall finished product are distinctly Persian

Moreover, when Cyrus chose to build Pasargadae, he had a long artistic tradition behind him that probably was distinctly Iranian already and that was in many ways the equal of any. The columned hall in architecture can now be seen as belonging to an architectural tradition on the Iranian Plateau that extended back through the Median period to at least the beginning of the first millennium BC. The rich Achaemenid gold work, which inscriptions suggest may have been a specialty of the Medes, was in the tradition of the delicate metalwork found in Iron Age II times at Hasanlu and still earlier at Marlik

This Achaemenid artistic style is particularly evident at Persepolis: with its carefully proportioned and well-organized ground plan, rich architectural ornament, and magnificent decorative reliefs, the palace there is one of the great artistic legacies of the ancient world. In its art and architecture, Persepolis celebrates the king and the office of the monarch and reflected Darius' perception of himself as the leader of a conglomerate people to whom he had given a new and single identity. The Achaemenids took the art forms and the cultural and religious traditions of many of the ancient Middle Eastern peoples and combined them into a single form

In describing the construction of his palace at Susa, Darius records that "The cedar timber from there (a mountain by name Lebanon) was brought, the yaka timber was brought from Gandara and from Carmania. The gold was brought from Sardis and from Bactria . . . the precious stone lapis-lazuli and carnelian . . . was brought from Sogdiana. The turquoise from Chorasmia, the silver and ebony from Egypt, the ornamentation from Ionia, the ivory from Ethiopia and from Sind(Pakistan) and from Arachosia. The stone-cutters who wrought the stone, those were Ionians and Sardians. The goldsmiths were Medes and Egyptians. The men who wrought the wood, those were Sardians and Egyptians. The men who wrought the baked brick, those were Babylonians. The men who adorned the wall, those were Medes and Egyptians"

This was an imperial art on a scale the world had not seen before. Materials and artists were drawn from all the lands ruled by the great kings, and thus tastes, styles, and motifs became mixed together in an eclectic art and architecture that in itself mirrored the empire and the Achaemenid understanding of how that empire ought to function

Gallery

آیا میدانید :اولین مردمانی که سیستم اگو یا فاضلاب را جهت تخلیه آب شهری به بیرون از شهر اختراع کرد ایرانیان بودند
آیا میدانید : اولین مردمانی که اسب را به جهان هدیه کردند ایرانیان بودند
▪ آیا میدانید : اولین مردمانی که حیوانات خانگی را تربیت کردند و جهت بهره مندی از آنان استفاده کردند ایرانیان بودند
▪آیا میدانید : اولین مردمانی که مس را کشف کرد ایرانیان بودند
▪ آیا میدانید : اولین مردمانی که آتش را در جهان کشف کردند ایرانیان بودند
▪ آیا میدانید : اولین مردمانی که ذوب فلزات را آغاز کردند ایرانیان بودند در شهر سیلک در اطراف کاشان
▪ آیا میدانید : اولین مردمانی که کشاورزی را جهت کاشت و برداشت کشف کردند ایرانیان بودند
▪ آیا میدانید : اولین مردمانی که نخ را کشف کردند و موفق به ریسیدن آن شدند ایرانیان بودند
▪ آیا میدانید : اولین مردمانی که سکه را در جهان ضرب کردند ایرانیان بودند
▪ آیا میدانید : اولین مردمانی که عطر را برای خوشبو شدن بدن ساختند ایرانیان بودند
▪ آیا میدانید : اولین مردمانی که کشتی یا زورق را ساختند به فرمان یکی از پادشاهان زن ایرانی بوده است
▪ آیا میدانید : اولین ارتش سواره در دنیا توسط سام ایرانی اختراع شد با ۱۱۵ سرباز
▪ آیا میدانید : اولین مردمانی که حروف الفبا را ساختند در ۷۰۰۰ سال پیش در جنوب ایران ، ایرانیان بودند .
▪ آیا میدانید : اولین مردمانی که شیشه را کشف کردند و از آن برای منازل استفاده کردند ایرانیان بودند
▪ آیا میدانید : اولین مردمانی که زغال سنگ را کشف کردند ایرانیان بودند
▪ آیا میدانید : اولین مردمانی که مقیاس سنجش اجسام را کشف کرد ایرانیان بودند
▪ آیا میدانید : اولین مردمانی که به کرویت زمین پی بردند ایرانیان بودند
▪ آیا میدانید : اولین مردمانی که قاره آمریکا را کشف کردند ایراینان بودند و کریستف کلب و واسکودوگاما بر اثر خواندن کتابهای ایرانی که در کتابخانه واتیکان بوده به فکر قاره پیمایی افتاده اند
▪ آیا میدانید : کلمه شاهراه از راهی که کورش بین سارد پایتخت کارون و پاسارگاد احداث کرد گرفته شده
▪ آیا میدانید : کورش کبیر در شوروی سابق شهری ساخت به نام کورپولیس که خجند امروزی نام دارد
▪ آیا میدانید : کورش پس از فتح بابل به معبد مردوک رفت و برای ابراز محبت به بابلی ها به خدای آنان احترام گذاشت و در همان معبد که بیش از ۱۰۰۰ متر بلندی داشت برای اثبات حسن نیت خود به آنان تاج گذاری کرد
▪ آیا میدانید : اولین هنرستان فنی و حرفه ای در ایران توسط کورش کبیر در شوش جهت تعلیم فن و هنر ساخته شد
▪ آیا میدانید : دیوار چین با بهره گیری از دیواری که کورش در شمال ایران در سال ۵۴۴ قبل از میلاد ساخت ، ساخته شد
▪ آیا میدانید : اولین سیستم استخدام دولتی به صورت لشگری و کشوری به مدت ۴۰ سال خدمت و سپس بازنشستگی و گرفتن مستمری دائم را کورش کبیر در ایران پایه گذاری کرد
▪ آیا میدانید : کمبوجبه فرزند کورش بدلیل کشته شدن ۱۲ ایرانی در مصر و به جای عذر خواهی فرعون مصر از ایرانیان به دشنام دادن و تمسخر پرداخته بود و به همین دلیل کمبوجیه با ۲۵۰ هزار سرباز ایرانی در روز ۴۲ از آغاز بهار ۵۲۵ قبل از میلاد به مصر حمله کرد و کل مصر را تصرف کرد و بدلیل آمدن قحطی در مصر مقداری بسیار زیادی غله وارد مصر کرد . اکنون در مصر یک نقاشی دیواری وجود دارد که کمبوجیه را در حال احترام به خدایان مصر نشان میدهد . و به هیچ وجه دین ایران را به آنان تحمیل نکرد و بی احترامی به آنان ننمود
▪ آیا میدانید : داریوش کبیر با شور و مشورت تمام بزرگان ایالتهای ایران که در پاسارگاد جمع شده بودند برگذیده شد و در بهار ۵۲۰ قبل از میلاد تاج شاهنشاهی ایران رابر سر تهاد و برای همین مناسبت ۲ نوع سکه طرح دار با نام داریک ( طلا ) و سیکو ( نقره ) را در اختیار مردم قرار داد که بعدها رایج ترین پولهای جهان شد
▪ آیا میدانید : داریوش کبیر طرح تعلمیات عمومی و سوادآموزی را اجباری و به صورت کاملا رایگان بنیان گذاشت که به موجب آن همه مردم می بایست خواندن و نوشتن بداند که به همین مناسبت خط آرامی یا فنیقی را جایگذین خط میخی کرد که بعدها خط پهلوی نام گرفت . ( داریوش به حق متعلق به زمان خود نبود و ۲۰۰۰ سال جلو تر از خود می اندیشید
▪ آیا میدانید : داریوش در پائیز و زمستان ۵۱۸ – ۵۱۹ قبل از میلاد نقشه ساخت پرسپولیس را طراحی کرد و با الهام گرفتن از اهرام مصر نقشه آن را با کمک چندین تن از معماران مصری بروی کاغد آورد
▪ آیا میدانید : داریوش بعد از تصرف بابل ۲۵ هزار یهودی برده را که در آن شهر بر زیر یوق بردگی شاه بابل بود آزاد کرد
▪ آیا میدانید : داریوش در سال دهم پادشاهی خود شاهرای بزرگ کورش را به اتمام رساند و جاده سراسری آسیا را احداث کرد که از خراسان به مغرب چین میرفت که بعدها جاده ابریشم نام گرفت
▪ آیا میدانید : اولین بار پرسپولیس به دستور داریوش کبیر به صورت ماکت ساخته شد تا از بزرگترین کاخ آسیا شبیه سازی شده باشد که فقط ماکت کاخ پرسپولیس ۳ سال طول کشید و کل ساخت کاخ ۶۵ سال به طول انجامید
▪ آیا میدانید : داریوش برای ساخت کاخ پرسپولیس که نمایشگاه هنر آسیا بوده ۲۵ هزار کارگر به صورت ۱۰ ساعت در تابستان و ۸ ساعت در زمستان به کار گماشته بود و به هر استادکار هر ۵ روز یکبار یک سکه طلا ( داریک ) می داده و به هر خانواده از کارگران به غیر از مزد آنها روزانه ۲۵۰ گرم گوشت همراه با روغن – کره – عسل و پنیر میداده است و هر ۱۰ روز یکبار استراحت داشتند
▪ آیا میدانید : داریوش در هر سال برای ساخت کاخ به کارگران بیش از نیم میلیون طلا مزد می داده است که به گفته مورخان گران ترین کاخ دنیا محسوب میشده . این در حالی است که در همان زمان در مصر کارگران به بیگاری مشغول بوده اند بدون پرداخت مزد که با شلاق همراه بوده است
▪ آیا میدانید : تقویم کنونی ( ماه ۳۰ روز ) به دستور داریوش پایه گذاری شد و او هیاتی را برای اصلاح تقویم ایران به ریاست دانشمند بابلی “دنی تون” بسیج کرده بود . بر طبق تقویم جدید داریوش روز اول و پانزدهم ماه تعطیل بوده و در طول سال دارای ۵ عید مذهبی و ۳۱ روز تعطیلی رسمی که یکی از آنها نوروز و دیگری سوگ سیاوش بوده است
▪ آیا میدانید : داریوش پادگان و نظام وظیفه را در ایران پایه گذاری کرد و به مناسبت آن تمام جوانان چه فرزند شاه و چه فرزند وزیر باید به خدمت بروند و تعلیمات نظامی ببینند تا بتوانند از سرزمین پارس دفاع کنند
▪ آیا میدانید : داریوش برای اولین بار در ایران وزارت راه – وزارت آب – سازمان املاک – سازمان پست و تلگراف ( چاپارخانه ) را بنیان نهاد
▪ آیا میدانید : اولین راه شوسه و زیر سازی شده در جهان توسط داریوش ساخته شد
▪ آیا میدانید : داریوش برای جلوگیری از قحطی آب در هندوستان که جزوی از ایران بوده سدی عظیم بروی رود سند بنا نهاد
▪ آیا میدانید : فیثاغورث که بدلایل مذهبی از کشور خود گریخته بود و به ایران پناه آورده بود توسط داریوش کبیر دارای یک زندگی خوب همراه با مستمری دائم شد
▪ آیا میدانید : در طول سلطنت داریوش کبیر ۲۴۲ حکمران بر علیه او شورش کرده بودند و او پادشاهی بوده که با ۲۴۲ مورد شورش مقابله کرد و همه را برا جای خود نشاند و عدالت را در سرتاسر ایران بسط داد . او در سال آخر پادشاهی به اندازه ۱۰ میلیون لیره انگلستان ذخیره مالی در خزانه دولتی بر جای گذاشت داریوش در سال ۵۲۱ قبل از میلاد فرمان داد : من عدالت را دوست دارم ، از گناه متنفرم و از ظلم طبقات بالا به طبقات پایین اجتماع خشنود نیستم
▪ آیا میدانید آئین زرتشت نخستین انقلاب انسانگرایی و آزادیخواهی در تاریخ بود. تمام نوشتارهای تاریخی نشان میدهد که چه اندازه این انقلاب جهان را به پیش کشاند و چه اندازه بر فرهنگ جهانی تاثیر گزاشت .
▪ آیا میدانید « تحولی که زرتشت در فرهنگ ایران به وجود آورد زنهای ایرانی را در تمام زمینه ها هم تراز مردان کرد و زنها از چنان آزادی برخوردار شدند که مانند آنرا در هیچ جایی از دنیای باستان نمیتوان یافت. درآن زمان یونانیها با زنان خود مانند برده رفتار میکردند و ارسطو میگفت زن نمیتواند روح داشته باشد.
پل دو بروی: تاریخ فلسفه زرتشت، پاریس ۱۹۸۴ رویه ۱۱۰
▪ آیا میدانید هیچ صفحه ا ی از کتابهای تاریخ نمیتواند گواه دهد که یک نفر بزور به اندیشه زرتشت وارد شده باشد. اگر جز این بود زمانی که ایرانیان امپراتوری جهانی درست کرده بودند، یونان و هند و مصر و تمام خاور میانه و نیمی از آفریقا زرتشتی شده بودند. ( پل دو بروی: تاریخ فلسفه زرتشت، پاریس ۱۹۸۴ رویه ۱۱۴)
▪ آیا میدانید در فرمان آزادی کورش (قانون حقوق بشر). که ۲۵۴۱ سال پیش با خط میخی روی استوانه بزرگی نوشته شده و امروز در موزه لندن است، این جمله ها آمده اند۰ « انسانها آزادند که هر خدایی را که دلخواه آنها است بپرستند، آنها آزادند که در کشور دلخواه خویش زندگی کنند، همگی باید در آرامش و صلح زندگی نمایند.....». ( و. ایلرز : ترجمه استوانه کورش از خط میخی، ۱۹۷۴ : ی. کیله: تفسیر نوشتار استوانه کورش، ۱۹۷۳ ) .
▪ آیا میدانید پس از آزادی یهودیان از اسارت بابل بوسیله کوروش بزرگ، ساختن معبد اورشلیم بوسیله داریوش و جمع آوری تورات بوسیله خشایارشاه، سه پادشاه زرتشتی ایران، پیامبران یهودی همچون ایسایی، ژرمی، ازقیل ودانیل، کورش بزرگ را در تورات « فرستاده خدا و پیام آور آزادی» خواندند. (ژرار ایزرایل: کورش بزرگ، پاریس ۱۹۸۷

Soraya Esfandiary-Bakhtiary :

(Persian: ثریا اسفندیاری, UniPers: Sorayâ Asfandiyâri) (b. June 22, 1932 - d. October 26, 2001) was the second wife and Queen Consort of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the last Shah of Iran.

Though her husband's title, Shahanshah (King of Kings), is the equivalent of Emperor, it was not until 1967 that a complementary feminine title, Shahbanu, was created to designate the wife of a Shah. Until then, wives of Shahs, including Soraya, bore the title Maleke, though in the popular press they frequently and incorrectly were called Empress.

Birth :

In the central and southern Zagros live the Bakhtiaris and the Lurs, two groups that speak Luri, a language closely related to Persian. Linguists have identified two Luri dialects: Lur Buzurg, which is spoken by the Bakhtiari, Kuhgiluyeh, and Mamasani tribes; and Lur Kuchik, which is spoken by the Lurs of Lorestan. Like the Persians, the Bakhtiaris and Lurs are Shia Muslims. Historically, each of the two groups was organized into several tribes. The tribal leaders or khans, especially those of the Bakhtiari tribes, were involved in national politics and were considered part of the prerevolutionary elite.

The Bakhtiaris have been considered both a political and a tribal entity separate from other Lurs for at least two centuries. They are concentrated in an area extending southward from Lorestan Province to Khuzestan Province and westward from Esfahan to within eighty kilometers of the present-day Iraqi border. A pastoral nomadic tribe called Bakhtiari can be traced back in Iranian history to as early as the fourteenth century, but the important Bakhtiari tribal confederation dates only from the nineteenth century. At the height of Bakhtiari influence, roughly from 1870 to 1930, the term Bakhtiari came to be associated not just with the nomadic tribes that provided the military prowess of the confederation but also with the villagers and even town dwellers who were under Bakhtiari jurisdiction. Thus, some Arabic-, Persian-, and Turkic-speaking peasants were considered part of the Bakhtiari. Beginning in the 1920s, the Pahlavi shahs gradually succeeded in establishing the authority of the central government in the Bakhtiari area. Several campaigns also were undertaken to settle forcibly the nomadic pastoral component of the Bakhtiari. The combined political and economic pressures resulted in a significant decline in the power of the Bakhtiari confederation. Detribalized Bakhtiaris, especially those who settled in urban areas and received an education in state schools, tended to be assimilated into Persian culture. By the time of the Revolution in 1979 the term Bakhtiari tended to be restricted to an estimated 250,000 tribespeople, most of whom still practiced pastoral nomadism.

Historically, the Bakhtiaris have been divided into two main tribal groups. The Chahar Lang are located in the northwest of the Bakhtiari country and until the middle of the nineteenth century retained the leadership of all the Bakhtiari tribes. The Haft Lang, the southwestern group, have been more closely associated with modern Iranian politics than the Chahar Lang and in some instances have exercised significant influence.

The Lurs (closely related to the Bakhtiaris) live in the Zagros to the northwest, west, and southeast of the Bakhtiaris. There were about 500,000 Lurs in Iran in the mid-1980s. The Lurs are divided into two main groups, the Posht-e Kuhi and the Pish-e Kuhi. These two groups are subdivided into more than sixty tribes, the most important of which include the Boir Ahmadi, the Kuhgiluyeh, and the Mamasani. Historically, the Lurs have included an urban segment based in the town of Khorramabad, the provincial capital of Lorestan. Prior to 1900, however, the majority of Lurs were pastoral nomads. Traditionally, they were considered among the fiercest of Iranian tribes and had acquired an unsavory reputation on account of their habit of preying on both Lur and non-Lur villages. During the 1920s and 1930s, the government of Reza Shah undertook several coercive campaigns to settle the nomadic Lurs. Following the abdication of Reza Shah in 1941, many of the recently settled tribes reverted to nomadism. Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi's government attempted with some success through various economic development programs to encourage the remaining nomadic Lurs to settle. By 1986 a majority of all Lurs were settled in villages and small towns in the traditional Lur areas or had migrated to cities.     

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                 THE BAKHTIARI TRIBES 

The Bakhtiari tribe divides into two main branches: the Haft Lang and the Chahar Lang. The Haft Lang consists of 33,493 households. The Chahar Lang consists of 2,825 households. Each tribe further divides into subtribes. The Bakhtiaris are Shi’ite Muslims. In difficult spots you find them seek assistance ("Yo Ali!") from Saint Ali, the First Saint of the Shi'ites.

The branch of the Il-i Bakhtiari (Bakhtiari tribe) that is depicted in the film is called the Baba Ahmadi. It migrates between Ahwaz and Isfahan, crossing the ice-cold water of the Karun River and the snow-clad peaks of the Zagros Mountain. They undertake this journey twice a year. This branch numbers about 50,000 individuals. The Il-Khan (supreme tribal chief) divides them into groups of approximately 5,000 and assigns each group an Il-Rah (tribal route).

The journey begins around the 21st of March (Persian New Year), near the city of Ahwaz. The first hurdle is the Karun River that is about half a mile wide. Women, children and young animals cross on puffed-up goatskins made into a raft. Others use single or double skins to cross themselves and their animals, which number about half a million.

To cross the river, the Bakhtiaris throw themselves and their livestock into the whirlpools. There they mill around until the centrifugal force of the water throws them out towards the opposite shore. Some men cross the river more than eight times a day to help others carry their flock, children and household utensils over to the other shore.

Crossing the river takes five or six days usually accompanied by many casualties. These include sheep and other livestock being swept away in the whirlpools, as well as the young men who drown trying to save them. Some elderly who decide against crossing the river stay behind. They have to fend for themselves alone.

The next hurdles are several mountain ranges. These mountains are crossed one after the other in a space of a few days during which the Bakhtiaris fan out and graze their flock around the rivers that take source in the mountains. The last range is called Zardeh Kuh. Over 13,000 feet in height and still covered by snow, the Bakhtiaris must cross it before they can reach the green pastures around Isfahan in the center of the plateau.

Here, the Bakhtiaris leave their equipment, tents, carpets, cooking utensils, and the other amenities that they had recently used in the nearby villages for use after they return. With them they take only the absolute necessities, i.e., their flocks, horses, donkeys, and mules, the main sources of their survival.

The Bakhtiaris are a truly hardy people. Even on the snow, they do not wear shoes, which they believe belong to the world of the city dwellers. When they must pass a place where deep snow needs to be packed, they "break trail" in the snow with their bare feet to ease the passage for the rest of the tribe. The entire journey takes about 30 days.

In general, the Bakhtiaris live six months in their qishlaq (winter quarters) around Ahwaz on the Khuzistan plain and four months in their yaylaq (summer quarters) around Isfahan. The other two months they travel, grazing their flocks on the way. About fifteen days of each journey is truly rough. At times, they find themselves sleeping on the snow-covered mountain without adequate clothing.

SPECIAL RIGARDS :    Iraj Bashiri

The Bakhtiari tribe, which numbers more than 800,000, inhabits an area of approximately 67,000 sq. km (25,000 sq. mi) that straddles the central Zagros Mountains in Iran. Although only about a third of the tribe is nomadic (the rest are settled agriculturists), the nomads embody the Bakhtiari cultural ideals. They specialize in producing meat and dairy products and migrate seasonally with their sheep, cattle, or goat herds from high plateau pastures, where they spend the summer, west of the city of Esfahan, to lowland plains in the province of Khuzistan for winter herd grazing. Their migration is among the most spectacular known among nomadic paternalists anywhere. They are obliged to cross mountain passes at about 3,050 m (10,000 ft) and therefore have to time their movement with extreme care in order to minimize the danger of early snowfall, flooding mountain rivers, and lack of grazing. Traditionally these dangers took a heavy toll, but in recent years the government has helped the migration by building bridges, improving the route, and setting up fodder supplies en route.

The Bakhtiari speak a dialect of Persian called Lori and are Shiite Muslims. Politically the tribe used to form a confederacy under a chief appointed by the shah, but this position has now been abolished. The confederacy was most effective in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and the Bakhtiari played an important role on the national level in Iran's constitutional movement. More recently many tribesmen have left the traditional way of life for employment in the oil industry in the cities.

 'The Fabulous land of Iran, Colorful and vigorous Folklore' The Bakhtiari's are the largest and most purely Iranian of all the Persian tribes. They belong to the Lur race and their language is closely related to the oldest known forms of Persian. The annual Bakhtiari migration in April from their Garmsir, or winter quarters in Khuszistan, to their Sardsir, or summer pastures in the Chahar Mahal region of the plateau south/west of Esfahan, takes from four to six weeks. It is an epic of human courage and endurance in which men, women and children of all ages, with their animals and household goods, travel by five different migrations routes across some of the wildest and most difficult mountain country in Persia in their search for grass.

Bakhtiary tribes and their yearly migration accross the persian landscapes and their physical and moral endeavors seem to have been fascinating enough to become a subject for two now classic films made by Hollywood Directors. The First Grass: A Nations Battle for Life (1925) made by the future producers of "King Kong" and the Second the Oscar nominated 1976 documentary film "People of the Wind" narrated by James Mason.

Merian C. Cooper ((1893 - 1973) is well known in the motion picture industry for his long list of pioneering ventures. He met Ernest B. Schoedsack in Poland during World War I and the two intrepid travelers decided to collaborate on making Grass: A Nation's Battle for Life (1925), showing the migratory habits of' the Bakhtiari tribe in Iran. Grass begins with Cooper, Schoedsack, and their third colleague, Marguerite Harrison, photographing themselves. Cooper is seen smoking a pipe, and a title card identifies him as "The engineer who conceived the idea of recording the migration." In the next shot, Cooper consults with Schoedsack, "whose camera recorded the experience." Lastly, we are introduced to Harrison, dressed in safari gear, looking like a cross between Marlene Dietrich and Marie Dressler. She is identified as an "author and traveler." After this moment in the spotlight, the two men disappear behind the camera. But the meaning is clear -- this is their film, their version of the events.

Grass sets out along a caravan rout "worn by the passing feet of centuries." Moving east through ancient villages and blinding sandstorms, the filmmakers reach a primitive settlement of goat-hair tents. Here, the village chieftain, Haidar, and his son become the focus of the film. A drought has parched the plains, so Haidar gives the order to pack up and begin the journey to feed their flocks in greener pastures. Men, women and children laden with tents and supplies herd their animals across immense distances, across raging rivers and up steep rocky mountain slopes. Barefoot, they climb through the snows of Zardeh Kuh where the camera captures amazing images. The filmmakers exposed audiences to scenes they didn't want to see, such as young animals drowning in the current of a river. These scenes seemed too harsh and perhaps that's why the film wasn't as commercially successful as Robert Flaherty's Nanoonk of the North (1922). However far from being discouraged, the collaboration between Cooper and Schoedsack extended into feature films with exotic backgrounds, the most famous of which was the legendary King Kong (1933), a classic in the fantasy-horror genre.

In 1975 precisely fifty years after Merian C. Coopers and Ernest B. Schoedsack�s 1925 Odyssey 'Grass: A Nation's Battle for Life, Anthony Howarth and David Koff decide to pay tribute to their daunting predecessors in another Documentary illustrating the same journey, only the reverse trip.

This time in color this documentary entitled People of the Wind shot in 1975 and released in 1976 allowed the film crew to focus on one particular tribesman leader of the Babahdi tribe whose words, translated into English and read by the actor James Mason, tell the timeless story of the great migration.

In western Iran the Bakhtiari tribe must make an annual 8-week, 200 mile trip to the mountain summer pastures. In this hazardous test of human endurance, we embark on an outstanding migration that takes a 500,000 men, women, and children, their livestock (one million animals) and all their possessions across the Zagros Mountains, a range which is as high as the Alps and as broad as Switzerland.

The tribesman relates the traditional rituals of life for the Bakhtiari, from how they tend their animals to their elaborate wedding feasts, and over the course of the film the tribe's unique mountain culture emerges. His story is as compelling, as it is amazing. It is difficult to believe that a people would so endure a journey of such hardship year after year. There is no road through the mountain, only trails or passages worn over time. It is, indeed, rough and rugged terrain over which to cross. The people climb, without roaps, these 15,000 foot peaks, herding along their livestock, in clothing and footwear that does not inure them to the ravages of frostbite and illness. You see young children herding animals on precipices that would give most people shivers. The movie takes you on a wonderful trip into the most savage, yet splendid scenery of inner Iran. The music only amplifies your joyous odyssey from numerous river crossings and mountainous trails.

 It is a primitive, yet communal way of life. The film provides the viewer with a fascinating glimpse into the lifestyle of these robust and proud mountain people. A credit should be given to the film's astonishing wide-screen photography which offers sweeping mountain panoramas that take the viewer out into the dangerous precipices of the Zardeh Kuh mountain and into the icy waters of the Cholbar river.

Fifty years after Cooper & Schoedsacks challenging Documentary , the producers of People of the Wind  prove that the Bakhtiaris are still a fascinating people by offering us a stunning saga of survival with scenes which have to this day something of Biblical force and intensity. For present day viewers it would be interesting to know if the migration has changed in present-day Iran.

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